1816+-+1914

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 * 1816 - 1914 (Beginning of WWI)**

**The Dual Revolution**
The Dual Revolution was a name given by historian Eric Hobsbawm referring to the period of time when the world was changing both economically and politically. The economic and political revolutions were completely separate for a good amount of time, and then after peace was restored in 1815, they merged into one great revolution stemming from both political and economic roots. Emerging from this time period came an increase in new ideas as well as three major ideological themes: liberalism, nationalism, and socialism. Revitalized conservatism came into play as well during this period as well. Together, all of these new themes of the Dual Revolution would come back to play huge parts in the time leading up to the Revolutions of 1848.

19th Century Railroad Building
In the early 1800’s, the first prototype of the railroad called “the steamer on wheels.” As the coal industry demanded, they put carts on rails to help carry heavier loads. In 1830, the “Rocket” was the first effective railroad, which ran from Liverpool, to Manchester. it was built by George Stevenson. The innovation of the railroad created larger markets, as well as cheaper coasts of delivery. this dramatacally altered the shipping of freight The construction of railroads created opportunities for unskilled laborers, and they became urban workers. New innovations of the railroads allowed trains to go over fifty miles an hour. It also changed the values and culture of the nineteenth century. (p 723 - 725).

Irland and The Great Famine
Durung the late 1880's Irland was controlled by Great Britain and was gaining no wealth and most of the country was peasntry. The peasents of Irland lived in small dirt shacks that werent very wheather resistint so disease spread fast. Along with alot of peasentry the population was growing rapidly so there needed to be more food. But in two seperate years the potato crop the Irish people lived of of failed and killed of many of the people on the island. The English government did little if anything to help the irish and this then sparked Irish Nationalish to try and breack free from the English.

**Prince Klemens von Metternich**
Pictured here, Klemens von Metternich appears as an intelligent and scholarly aristocrat. He is dressed in aristocratic formal attire and appears passionate about his class status. -Metternich fled Austria in disguise towards London when the Revolutions of 1848 hit Austria. Once he fled, absolutist rule started to fade fast. He is known for helping to keep the peace from 1815 after Napoleon was exiled until the start of World War I in 1914.

**19th Century Liberalism**

 * Based on the principal ideas of liberty and equality, 19th century liberalism, often called classical liberalism as well, demanded a representative government and equality before the law as well as specific freedoms such as freedom of press, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and freedom from arbitrary arrest (essentially the right to a fair trail and innocence until proven guilty). Liberalism was often questioned by many because of its economic principles which called for no government interference in the economy. This philosophy of //laissez faire//, was advocated by Adam Smith as exhibited through his book //Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations// in which he argued that a free economy would benefit all people of a nation as opposed to just the wealthy. 19th century liberalism contributed largely to the growth of the industrial revolution as well as the development of increasingly democratic governments. **

**19th Century Nationalism**

 * Originally, the "national idea" was that each people, or nation, had its own // cultural unity // that had nothing to do with political similarities or boundaries. These cultural similarities included common language, history, territory, or traditions. Although many sought to make nationalism a reality, for most of the 19th century it remained more of a dream or hope for the future. 19th century nationalists included the Italian Guiseppe Mazzini as well as the French Jules Michelet. Although nationalism did not have a large part in the early 19th century, by the late 19th century and into the 20th century, nationalism was contributing greatly to the political boundaries after the world wars as well as the initial feelings which caused the upheaval leading up to the age of crisis. **

 Romanticism was the belief in emotional exuberance, and unrestrained imagination in both the arts and peoples’ personal lives. It went against the principle ideas of classicism and the Enlightenment. In Germany, the romanticists called themselves the Sturm and Drang (storm and stress). This exemplifies the emotions felt during the romantic movements; there were suicides, duels to death, strange illnesses, etc. Romanticists were individualists who did not accept the idea of materialism. To them, the primary purpose of life was the full development of one’s unique human potential. Also, nature was extremely important to romanticists-“nature is spirit visible”-John Constrable Romanticists: -Rousseau -William Wordsworth (Daffodils) and Samuel Coleridge- “Lyrical Ballads” -Beethoven

**Utilitarianism**
Utilitarianism was the compromise between the ideas of socialism and laissez faire economics. With an overlaying free market and free business, utilitarianism resembles laissez faire. But, the government supplies certain services such as a police force and fire department. These ideas are given credit to Jeremy Bentham.


 * Greek Independence**

The people of Greece won their independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821. This was a major turning point in European history. The first truely successful nation state of the balkens had risen. From then on, revolt was constant in empires like Russia, Ottoman Empire, and Austria-Hungary. As the power of nationalism grew and the giant empires decreased, the stage was set for more unified and national Europe.

 Socialism began in France. French-Utopian Socialism was based on the idea of economic planning: the rich and poor should be more equal economically. Private property should be regulated by the government or abolished and replaced with community/state ownership. There were the parasites (court, aristocracy, lawyers) that should give way to the doers (engineers, industrialists, scientists). French utopian socialists: -Fourier -Louis Blanc- “Organization of Work” -Proudhon- “What is property?”

Marxian Socialism was established with Karl Marx, whose book “The Communist Manifesto” became the bible of socialism. He believed that the proletariats would conquer the bourgeoisie in a violent revolution. “WORKING MEN UNITE” is a popular quote for Marx’s book.

France in the 1830 and Louis Phillepe
France in the 1830's was seperated manily by class. The country was still in the middle of the industrial revolution and was growing rapidly. But the classes we sperated severly. The fisrt class the working class were the people who worked in the factories and made little money daily and had no food or clothes. The next class was the Middle class, these people whould work in shops and have their own private bussinesses. And at this time women were starting to get more rights and were takeing up jobs but still couldnt vote or nearly make as much money as men could. The final class was the Wealthier people that were in government positions.

Louis Phillepe was the savior basiclly of the revolution in France in 1830. And took up the new flag as seen today and was seen as the new king of France.

**Conservative Nationalism**
Conservative Nationalism was a movement primarily focused on classic values of the social and ethical norms of the past. Conservative nationalists would lean towards the traditional family and a stable society. They believed that many of the core values all people should learn come from the home. Conservative nationalists were very anti-revolution and focused primarily on the improvement of their state and lives.

**New Imperialism**
New Imperialism marks the time period between Prussia's and France's Franco-Prussian War and WW1. The main powers competing for oversea colonies during this time was Great Britain, France, and even possibly the United States with their collection of Guam, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and the Phillipines from Spain in the Spanish American war. The reason behind the expansion was shrinking markets and overproduction of manufactured goods and the need for new markets whilst avoiding tariffs. The surge of new imperialism can be seen the best in the Scramble for Africa, where 6 European contries laid claims to huge swaths of land effectivly dividing the contident into pieces. Only two African countries remained independant. However, New Imperialism came to a halt when war broke out in Europe due to the interests shifting to the war at hand.

**Economic Nationalism**
Economic nationalism was a term inspired by Friedrich List in which policies that emphasize domestic control of the economy, labor, and capital formation. Economic nationalism opposed globalization and questions free trade while supporting protectionism. Economic nationalism did not play a huge part in the Industrial Era as a whole; however, it was the economic policy that was popular in Germany. Businesses were created to promote the German economy alone, so in turn the money/materials made from the businesses went towards World War I.

**19th Century Social Structure**
During the 19th century, there was a substantial rise in the standard of living yet, hardship and poverty was not eliminated. The environment was vibrant and materialistic and the ida of "romantic love" triumphed. The society in the 19th century was an emerging urban society and slowly gender roles began to change and the traditional values of society became less important. The emergence of this type of environment promoted secularization of the Western worldview.

**Golden Age of the Middle Class**
During the 19th century, the rise of Middle Class had hit a new high. With the end of World War 1 being the final nail in the coffin for the noble class. And industrialization blending the working and middle classes together. A new standard of living and new power was now accessible to the masses. With this political and economic power, the middle class could truely have a Golden Age.


 * 19th century Urbanization**

With the rise of the middle class and industrialization during the 19th century, urbanization grew. compared to old cities and towns, these urban areas were huge and organized. These new cities were planned ahead of time. But there were negative aspects as well. Such as, cramped living conditions and dangerous parts of town.
 * Freud**

After World War I, a period of pessimism came about, which also known as the Age of Anxiety. World War I had questioned the potential of the humans. Since the Renaissance, man was believed to be the greatest race and capable of progress; however, the Age of Anxiety let many to rethink the potential of the human mind. Among these thinkers was Sigmund Freud. He saw that human mind was very irrational, which is called the //id//. He found that the //ego//, the rational part of the mind, was in constant battle with the humans natural instinct.

English Liberal Reforms of the 1820s-40s
Starting in the American and French Revolutions, liberalism spread offering freedom and equality. Classical Liberalism said that the government would stay out of the economy as popularly known in laissez faire. A free economy was offered that gave all people the opportunity to compete in a market. The founder of modern economics explains this in his text //The Wealth of Nations.//

**Realism**
Realism is an art movement that began in France in the mid 19th century. It emphasized to depict objects without as they appear to the human eye. The art is not exaggerated with emotion. Realism tends to be the direct opposite of the art found during the Romantic period. The picture below is an example of Realism.