1649+-+1715

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 * 1649 (Cromwell) - 1715 (Death of Louis XIV)**

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Thomas Hobbes was a political philosopher who lived in England. In 1651 he wrote //Leviathan//, in which he explained that people are naturally evil, and that they need a strong absolute ruler to determine what the people really need, or the **general will**. In order for this type of government to be successful, he argued, all people needed to give up the power to govern themselves. In Exchange, they will get security and someone to determine what they really need in a **commonwealth** monarchy. The king in this type of government is above the law, while the law governs over the people.

**John Locke**[[image:http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_pG1RoKRCf78/SUikTFXEg1I/AAAAAAAABQI/T4H4_hzO_rw/s320/john-locke.jpg width="243" height="240" align="right" caption="external image"]]
John Locke was an English pre-Enlightenment philosopher who was one of the inspirations to the Enlightenment period. In 1690 he wrote his ground-breaking //Essay Concerning Human Understanding//, in which he explained his main theory of human nature. He believed that every human being was born with a blank slate, or "**tabula rasa**", of a mind. This meant that everything a human being consisted of was his environment and outside influences; nobody was born evil. This revolutionary theory contradicted the original way of thinking, in which it was believed that people were born with basic traits and ideas. Also published in 1690, his //Second Treatise of Civil Government// explained that people set up governments to to protect life, liberty, and property. They gave up some power to secure these rights in a **social contract**. He said that any man with property had these rights, and any government that does any more than protecting these rights is tyranny. If this does occur, Locke believed in the right of the people to rebel against their unjust government. He linked the ownership of property to having these rights. John Locke's principles were especially popular in colonial America, because they believed the native Americans didn't deserve rights because they didn't own property.

**English Revolution**
The English Revolution occurred approximately at the end of the time period that began after Elizebeth I's death 1603 and concluded in 1649, when Cromwell came to power. At the conclusion of Elizabeth I's reign, England's political structure was a **monarchy**, and the people severely lacked any political power or voice. Inheriting the throne from Elizabeth, James Stuart (who took the name of James I), Elizabeth's Scottish cousin, ended the Tudor dynasty and began the Stuart dynasty. It's significance lies in James and his son, Charles I, grasped for an absolutist monarchy, as King Lous XIV was establishing in France at the time. However, the growing power of the Parliament, especially the slow rise of the House of Commons, prompted Parliament to structure its forces into the **New Model Army**, which concored in the **English civil war between 1642-1649**. As a result, a **militaristic dictatorship** by Cromwell emerged in England in 1649.

**Stuart England**
Stuart England began with the inheritance of the throne by James Stuart, or James I, from Elizabeth I in 1603. It continued until Cromwell came to power in 1649, took an 11 year pause, and was reestablished in 1660 in the **Restoration** until the **Glorious Revolution in 1688**. During this era, the Stuarts focused on primarily establishing an **absolutist monarchy**. The problem that they had unforeseen was that the social and political elite in England were beginning to follow the words of John Locke and wanted a more-democratic form of government, such as the one Locke had called for in his __Second Treatise of Civil Government__. Additionally, //the Stuart dynasty was the counter-intuitive pull on society, politics, and economics during the 17th century for England//, which prompted the English to look for a modern view of state structure (which would come about with the Glorious Revolution in 1688).

**Cromwell**
The religious issues in England between parliament and Charles I in England eventually lend to the English civil war (1642-1649). The New Model Army led by Oliver Cromwell won and Charles I was put on trial and beheaded in 1649. Not wanting another absolutist government, the English named Cromwell Protectorate with the Parliament having sole rights on specific issues like taxes and money. However, unlike in theory, reality became much different and Cromwell became a military dictator. Cromwell also thought of Irish Catholicism as heresy and he massacred thousands of Irish. Although a cruel dictator, Cromwell did well with managing the economy by passing the Navigation Act of 1651 which required all English goods be shipped on English boats. After Cromwell’s death, the English restored the monarchy under Charles II.

**The Glorious Revolution**
After the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II, he secretly tried to re-Catholicize England with the help of his cousin Louis XIV. When parliament found out they tried to pass a law to forbid Roman Catholic heir but Charles dissolved parliament before it could become a law. James II the successor of Charles II continued his work by violating the Test Act by hiring Roman Catholics in high positions. Backlash started against James II and he was forced to flea England and William and Mary took over. This smooth transition was known as the Glorious Revolution because there was little bloodshed in the overthrow. Based on John Locke’s Second Treatise of Civil Government, the English government established sovereignty with themselves and the king. The Bill of Rights was also created to make sure no more disasters with overpowered rulers would occur.

**Classicism**
Classicism is the **art, literature, or philosophy** that has roots in **Greek and Roman** myths or legends. Classicism was particuraly popular in France during **Louis XIV's** rule. The art and literature of that age is known as **French classicism**. Throughout this movement, France made many great social achievements, such as French being regarded as the language of the higher classes and international diplomacy. Along with the classicism in France, it too was expressed throughout the **Renaissance** in various works of art and texts.

**Louis XIV**
Louis XIV was the king of France from 1643 to 1715, the longest reign by a European monarch in history. Known as the Sun King, he became the king when he was just a boy, he recieved a good education and was taught that he ruled by Divine Right, meaning that God had picked him to be king and he only had to answer to God. He established a strong absolutist rule over France by personally attending councils and making a system of intendants in order to have more control over the provinces. In fear of the nobles having power, he excluded them from his councils. He let them live in Versailles and enjoy a life of social grandeur and court posing but he gave them no real power. Under Louis XIV, the French monarchy reached the acme of absolutist developement.

**Nobles of the Robe vs. Nobles of the Sword**
"Nobles of the Robe" were a new innovation that was crucial to the success of French absolutism. Essentially, it allowed for wealthy members of the third estate to buy noble titles from the king and become part of the government. This kept down the "nobles of the sword" by forcing them out of the government, and thus out of the ear of the French monarch. Naturally, the nobles of the sword kept their privileges and still remained as the officer corps of the army, but never again would they have political power. That now belonged to the nobles of the robe, who owed their power to the king. French Absolutism Equation: __K + MC vs N__ P

**Cardinal Richelieu**
Cardinal Richelieu was Louis XIII's chief minister from 1624 to 1642. While Louis XIII was the king, it was really Richelieu who held most of the power, and who began building an absolute monarchy in France. Possibly his largest move towards absolutism was his establishment of //raison d'etat//, which justified his policies as necessary to the well-being of the state. This came into effect when he laid siege to La Rochelle, a Huguenot stronghold, in 1628. With that military statement, Richelieu laid the foundations for "One king, one law, one faith" that would become the basis of French absolutism.

**Mercantilism**
Mercantilism is a collection of government based policies that regulate economic activities, for the benefit of the state. Mercantilism's main objective is to accumulate the most natural resources for the benefit of the government. Also, state intervention was crucial in mercantilism, so the amount of goods exported were greater than the amount imported; thus, the country could become self-sufficient. This seventeenth and eighteenth century theory was perfected by **Louis XIV'**s adviser **Jean-Baptise Colbert**. It is through his ambitious projects, such as the obtaining of Canada, that the French economy survived the constant military spending of Louis XIV.

**The Decline of 17th-century Spain**
Despite surviving the nonchalant spending of Phillip II, the Spanish monarchy was on the brink of disaster. The Dutch and English cut into Spain's silver trade from the Americas; hence, the reason why the monarchy began to lose its wealth. Facing constant national debt and decreasing revenues, the Spanish crown was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1596, 1607, 1627, 1647, and1680. Also, the long and tedious feuds with France forced Spain to accept the **Treaty of the Pyrenees** (1659), which caused Spain to surrender territories to France (result to Thirty Years' War). Finally, the **Peace of Utrecht** officially completed the devastation of the Spanish monarchy in 1713. Combating a failing economy, international pressure, and a devotion to Catholic faith, the decline of Spain seemed inevitable as other European powers began to conquer.

**Baroque**
Baroque was a **cultural period** of the **Western arts** that exemplified a bombastic, exaggerated, and unbalanced style of art that appealed to the senses. Due to its promotion by Rome and the Catholic Church, this cultural movement was especially popular and successful in ** Italy **, Spain, and Central Europe. Although baroque painters such as **Peter Paul Rubens** prospered with high social statuses for glorifying their Renaissance-like patrons, usually rulers and nobles, baroque musicians such as **Johann Sebastian Bach** were not fully recognized or appreciated until later. Because of the tense drama and violence in politics and religion, people were drawn to the baroque **emotionalism** in the age of absolutism. The baroque was used by **absolutists** and **Catholics** as a political and religious tool to increase state or church power by appealing to people and strengthening their faith in the state or church.

**Eastern Absolutism**
The major countries who took absolutism as their government form were Austria, Prussia and Russia. Eastern Absolutism was clearly distinguished from the West Absolutism by the use of Serfdom. The use of Serfdom did not go hand in hand with Absolutism for the most part. The nobility in Austria, ruled by the Habsburg, increased the burdens of serfdom and profited from it, in which they acquired financial stability as well as their political power. Thus, Charles VI later proclaimed Pragmatic Sanction, that stated that Habsburg possessions were never to be divided, no matter what happens. Similarly, Prussian's elector, Fredrick WIlliam, struggled with the nobles in Prussia, so called Junkers. Later on, Fredrick william I, "the Soldiers' King", gained sovereignty of his people, peacefully governing Prussia. The absolutism also spread through Russia as well. However, Peter the Great, the emperor of Russia, greatly reformed Russia; He tried to westernize Russia, instead of taking the route of Eastern Absolutism. Overall, Eastern Absolutism wasn't as effective as Western Absolutism, and was heavily depended on Serfdom.

**Peter the Great**
Peter the Great of ** Russia ** was an absolutist monarch from **1682 to 1725** who was determined to continue territorial expansion, state-building, and building up his army. For territorial expansion, Peter I started a war with **Sweden** with the help of Denmark and Poland in the **Great Northern War** in which he needed to modernize and model his army after the Dutch and English to defeat Sweden. He reformed Russia by creating a **meritocracy**, increasing service requirements of commoners, creating a regular **standing army**, imposing the idea of **unigeniture**, one son inherits the land, and by creating **St. Petersburg**, Russia’s new **Westernized** and **modernized** capital. His Westernizing efforts were continued by **Catherine the Great** during the **Enlightenment**.

**Serfdom**
Serfdom is often described as a condition of bondage. Serfs were the workers bounded to the land of their feudal lords; they worked the land of their feudal lords, as well as being submitted to other obligations in exchange for military protection. However, most serfs were not allowed to leave the land, and many of them did not travel any farther than couple miles. Serfdom was a significant factor which contributed to the formation of Eastern Absolutism. Yet due to the rise of Commerce and centralized government in Western Europe, many serfs gained freedom of movement and the right to own private property, destroying the foundations of serfdom in which the Eastern European countries heaviliy depended on. In a sense, the serfs became more of restricted citizens than serfs during the 16th - early 17th century. But later in the 17th century, Russian serfs were heavily oppressed once again, resembling the plantation slavery of the Americas.

**Prussian Hohenzollerns**
The Hohenzollerns first started to gain power through the multiple land masses they had managed to acquire with Frederick William, the Great Elector, as their leader. The Peace of Westphalia also had managed to grant the Hohenzollerns with some extra power through land they were granted. The Hohenzollerns managed to prosper in many aspects, education, agriculture and military. By taxing the areas they ruled efficiently, the government came to become well off and well prepared for the battles to come in the future. Once Frederick the Great became king, his invasion of Silesia caused uproar, leading to two wars, the War of Austrian Successions, and the Seven Years War, not involving just Prussia and the invaded target, but multiple nations also.